Lotus is a perennial aquatic plant that has been revered for centuries in various cultures for its medicinal properties and symbolic significance. In recent years, scientific interest in lotus has surged due to its rich chemical composition and diverse pharmacological activities, particularly in the context of metabolic diseases. Metabolic diseases, including diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular disorders, represent a global health burden, necessitating the exploration of novel therapeutic strategies [1].

NNG exhibits a complex chemical profile, containing a plethora of bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, polysaccharides, and vitamins. These constituents contribute to its nutritional value and pharmacological potential. Studies have revealed various pharmacological activities associated with lotus, including anti-diabetic, anti-obesity (catechins and epigallocatechin gallate), hypolipidemic, antioxidant (rutin), anti-inflammatory (quercetin and Kaempferol), neuroprotective (nuciferine) and cardioprotective effects (anthocyanins) [2].

Lotus cultivars exhibit considerable variability across a range of traits, including morphology, physiology, and biochemical composition. This diversity arises from natural selection, breeding efforts, and environmental factors. Morphologically, lotus cultivars vary in flower colour, size, petal count, and leaf shape, reflecting adaptations to different growing conditions and aesthetic preferences. Physiologically, cultivars differ in growth habits, flowering patterns, and tolerance to environmental stressors such as temperature, humidity, and soil conditions.

This updated review aims to comprehensively explore the chemical composition, nutritional value, and pharmacological activities of NNG, focusing on its potential therapeutic applications in metabolic diseases. By synthesizing recent advancements in lotus research, this review seeks to provide valuable insights into the mechanisms of action underlying its beneficial effects and to identify areas for future research and therapeutic development.

Numerous studies have delved into the pharmacological activities of lotus and its relevance to metabolic diseases. In the context of diabetes management, lotus has demonstrated promising anti-diabetic effects through mechanisms such as improving insulin sensitivity, enhancing glucose uptake, and inhibiting α-glucosidase and α-amylase enzymes. Additionally, its antioxidant properties have been implicated in protecting pancreatic β-cells from oxidative stress-induced damage, thereby preserving insulin secretion and ameliorating hyperglycaemia.

Lotus extracts have also shown efficacy in combating obesity-related metabolic complications. By modulating lipid metabolism, lotus exhibits hypolipidemic effects by reducing serum triglyceride and cholesterol levels, as well as inhibiting adipogenesis and promoting lipolysis. Moreover, its ability to suppress appetite and attenuate lipid absorption underscores its potential as a natural anti-obesity agent.

Beyond its anti-diabetic and anti-obesity effects, lotus has been investigated for its cardiovascular protective properties. Studies suggest that lotus extracts possess vasodilatory, anti-hypertensive, and anti-atherosclerotic activities, thereby mitigating risk factors associated with cardiovascular diseases [3].

While the existing literature underscores the promising pharmacological activities of NNG in metabolic disease management, further research is warranted to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms and optimize its therapeutic applications. Future studies should focus on exploring synergistic effects with existing therapies. Overall, lotus holds immense potential as a natural therapeutic agent for mitigating the burden of metabolic diseases, offering a promising avenue for preventive and therapeutic interventions in public health.

Chemical composition of NNG

Lotus possesses a diverse array of chemical constituents that contribute to its nutritional value and pharmacological activities, particularly in the management of metabolic diseases. The chemical composition of lotus varies across its different parts, including the leaves, flowers, seeds, and rhizomes, each containing unique bioactive compounds. Here, we provide an overview of the key chemical constituents found in NNG:

Alkaloids: Lotus plants contain alkaloids such as liensinine, isoliensinine, and nuciferine, which have been implicated in various pharmacological activities, including anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and cardiovascular protective effects.

Flavonoids: Flavonoids are abundant in lotus and include compounds such as quercetin, kaempferol, and rutin. These flavonoids possess potent antioxidant properties, scavenging free radicals and protecting against oxidative stress-related damage in metabolic diseases. Also used in the treatment of insomnia and has antimicrobial activities.

Phenolic Acids: Lotus contains phenolic acids such as chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and ferulic acid, which contribute to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, thereby potentially mitigating metabolic disorders.

Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides extracted from lotus exhibit various bioactivities, including anti-diabetic effects by improving insulin sensitivity and regulating glucose metabolism. They also possess immunomodulatory properties, which may contribute to overall metabolic health.

Vitamins: Lotus is a rich source of vitamins, including vitamin C, vitamin B complex, and vitamin E, which play crucial roles in metabolism, immune function, and antioxidant defence mechanisms.

Lipids: Lotus seeds are particularly rich in lipids, comprising essential fatty acids such as linoleic acid and oleic acid. These lipids contribute to the nutritional value of lotus and may have implications for lipid metabolism and cardiovascular health.

Minerals: Lotus contains essential minerals such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, and iron, which are important for maintaining metabolic balance and overall health [4,5].

Nutritional value of NNG

NNG offers significant nutritional value across its various edible parts. Lotus seeds, a popular delicacy in many cuisines, are rich in protein, dietary fibre, and essential minerals such as phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. They also contain vitamins B and E, contributing to overall health and well-being. Lotus rhizomes, another edible part of the plant, are low in calories and rich in complex carbohydrates, making them a nutritious staple in many diets. Additionally, lotus leaves are a good source of antioxidants, including flavonoids and phenolic compounds, which may help combat oxidative stress and promote metabolic health. Incorporating NNG into the diet can thus provide essential nutrients and bioactive compounds that support overall health and potentially mitigate the risk of metabolic diseases [6].

Pharmacological activities of NNG

Lotus exhibits a diverse range of pharmacological activities that have garnered significant interest in the field of natural medicine. Studies have demonstrated its potential in various therapeutic areas, particularly in combating metabolic diseases. Lotus extracts have shown promising anti-diabetic effects by improving insulin sensitivity, enhancing glucose uptake, and inhibiting key enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism, such as α-glucosidase and α-amylase. Additionally, lotus compounds like liensinine and nuciferine have demonstrated hypoglycaemic effects, contributing to glucose control [3].

Furthermore, lotus possesses anti-obesity properties, as evidenced by its ability to modulate lipid metabolism, inhibit adipogenesis, and promote lipolysis. These effects can help manage obesity-related complications and improve metabolic health. Lotus also exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities attributed to its rich content of flavonoids, phenolic acids, and other bioactive compounds. These properties protect against oxidative stress, reduce inflammation, and prevent cellular damage, thereby potentially mitigating the development and progression of metabolic diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disorders [7].

Moreover, NNG demonstrates cardiovascular protective effects, including vasodilation, anti-hypertensive activity, and inhibition of atherosclerosis formation. These properties contribute to overall cardiovascular health and may help prevent complications associated with metabolic syndrome. In summary, the pharmacological activities of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn extend to multiple aspects of metabolic diseases, making it a promising candidate for the development of natural therapeutics in this field [8]. Further research is warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and optimize its therapeutic applications.

Clinical translation

Natural products have been widely employed in the treatment of NAFLD, now referred to as MAFLD, due to their unique benefits compared to pharmaceutical drugs. However, several challenges hinder the clinical utilization of many natural products, including inadequate water solubility, limited bioavailability in the body, insufficient distribution to the liver, and absence of targeted effects. Moreover, conducting well-designed clinical trials to assess the safety, efficacy, and optimal dosing of lotus products in diverse patient populations is essential for establishing their therapeutic utility in metabolic diseases [9]. The objective of this research is to identify the active constituents present in lotus flavonoid and glycoside extract and to assess their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects through both in vitro and in vivo experiments [10].

Moreover, with standardized extraction methods and formulation optimization in lotus-based product development, researchers could adopt several strategies. Firstly, establishing standardized protocols for extraction techniques, such as solvent selection, extraction time, and temperature, would enhance consistency and reproducibility across studies. Secondly, conducting systematic optimization studies to determine the ideal formulation parameters, including excipients, concentrations, and delivery systems, can improve product stability and efficacy. Additionally, collaboration between multidisciplinary teams comprising botanists, chemists, pharmacologists, and food scientists would facilitate a comprehensive understanding and refinement of extraction and formulation processes. Finally, incorporating advanced analytical techniques, such as HPLC and mass spectrometry, can ensure accurate quantification of bioactive compounds, aiding in quality control and standardization efforts.

Future perspectives

Moving forward, collaborative efforts between researchers, clinicians, and industry stakeholders are needed to harness the therapeutic potential of lotus for managing metabolic diseases effectively. Integrating traditional knowledge with modern scientific approaches can facilitate the development of standardized lotus-based interventions with demonstrated efficacy and safety profiles. Additionally, exploring synergistic interactions between lotus and conventional therapies may pave the way for novel combination treatments targeting multiple metabolic pathways.

In conclusion, Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn, or lotus, exhibits a diverse array of bioactive compounds that contribute to its nutritional value and pharmacological activities, particularly in the context of metabolic diseases. The wealth of evidence from preclinical studies suggests that lotus holds promise as a natural therapeutic agent for managing metabolic disorders such as diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases.

Despite the promising findings, several challenges remain, including the need for standardized extraction methods, formulation optimization, and rigorous clinical validation. Further research is warranted to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms of lotus action and to assess its safety and efficacy in clinical settings.

Overall, lotus represents a valuable botanical resource with the potential to complement existing therapeutic approaches for metabolic diseases. Future efforts should focus on overcoming the challenges associated with clinical translation and harnessing the full therapeutic potential of lotus-based interventions, ultimately contributing to improved management and prevention of metabolic diseases on a global scale.