In recent years, stress and stress-coping mechanisms constitute a growing public healthcare issue concerning modern society. Experiencing stress engenders a great complex mechanism named stress response, which consists of a rapid release of catecholamines by the sympathetic nervous system, followed by a slower response in which hormones, mainly glucocorticoids (GCs), are synthesized and released to the bloodstream.

Youth soccer players undergo a maturational changes which result in physiological, anatomical, and biological changes during adolescence. During seven years of follow-up, it was observed that in youth soccer, the sprint distance and number of sprints increased by ~35%, whereas the number of high-intensity actions increased by ~50%.

The professionals involved soccer should understand that due to the game’s rules there may not be possibility correct hydration for soccer players during the matches and the opportunities that may appear to drink electrolytic drinks are still limited, not only drinks, but also opportunities to offer carbohydrates in gel form during matches. 

The health consequences of tobacco use continue to be a major concern in the United States and the world. Consequently, nicotine metabolite testing has expanded to include workplace testing, child custody cases, health insurance pre-qualification, pre-surgical organ transplant qualification, and smoking cessation programs. Nicotine use is also linked to poor surgical outcomes and studies have shown an increased risk for infection, increased morbidity, delayed wound healing, longer hospital stays, and postoperative respiratory failure.

Two distinct, but intertwining, threads of inquiry have demonstrated that the PDE4, or cAMP-selective, phosphodiesterases, have an essential role in human cognition, learning and memory. Study of genetically-modified preclinical models, and of humans with mutations in the PDE4D gene, has provided some of the most rigorous proof of the importance of PDE4 signaling in the CNS. More recently, clinical trials of PDE4-selective inhibitors have shown promising clinical activity in disorders of cognition and memory.